Historically, all previous theoretical writings, practical observations or even brief reflections on what translators do in their work, what makes them able to do it and how this relates to their effectiveness, can be seen as precursors to research on translation competence1. Although translators and translation critics have always shown a certain amount of interest in these issues, the first academic publications on the subject did not appear until the 1970s (Harris, 1978; Harris and Sherwood, 1978; Wilss, 1976) and the explosion in the literature began in the 1990s (see, e.g., Bell, 1991; Campbell, 1991; Neubert, 1992; Nord, 1992, 1996; Pym, 2003; Risku, 1998; Shreve, 1997; Stolze, 1994), mainly due to the emergence of the psycholinguistic approach in translation studies (Klaudy, 1999).

This early development culminated in the establishment of the PACTE group at the University of Barcelona and the formulation of its translation competence model. The group continues to be active and has been conducting empirical research in the field of translation competence for over two decades. Its publications are essential for those who wish to pursue research in this area (see, for example, PACTE, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2008a, 2008b, 2011, 2014, 2018, 2019, 2020; Kozlova & Presas, 2005; Beeby, 2017; Hurtado Albir & Olalla-Soler, 2016; and Hurtado Albir, 2017a).

Since the turn of the millennium, the study of translation competence has flourished, as evidenced by the large number of publications that can be linked to competence in some way (e.g., Alves & Gonçalves, 2007; Bergen, 2009; Gregorio Cano, 2012; Cheng, 2018; Chodkiewicz, 2021; Ehrensberger-Dow & Massey, 2013; Eyckmans et al., 2009; Göpferich, 2009, 2013; Göpferich & Jääskeläinen, 2009; Király, 2013; Lesznyák, 2007; Malmkjaer, 2009; Massey & Ehrensberger-Dow, 2010; Scarpa & Orlando, 2017; Shreve et al., 2018; Piotrowska, 2016; Salamah, 2021).

The PACTE model, which focuses on translation as a mental activity, has remained the most influential psycho-linguistic model of translation. The PACTE model was further developed and modified by Susanne Göpferich (2009, 2011, 2013) whose model came to be known as the TransComp model.

One of the best-known competence models in present-day translation studies is the EMT model, which presents a radically different view of translation. It conceptualises translation as a job or workplace competence, encompassing competencies related to employability and service provision. Due to its broader focus, the EMT model incorporates a considerably broader range of skills and abilities than the PACTE or the Transcomp model.

In addition to these general models, a number of more specific models have been proposed in the literature, too. These include the PETRA model (PETRA-E reference framework, 2018) which describes literary translation competence, the Legal Translation Competence Model created by Prieto Ramos (2011) and the Competence Card for Specialized Translators compiled by the ETRANSFAIR project (Szabó, 2018, 2020).

Over the past two decades, numerous studies have been designed and carried out to explain how translation competence and its elements function and interact (for a comprehensive review, see Alves & Albir, 2017).

In this chapter, general translation competence models will be reviewed, followed by empirical studies on translation competence that are relevant to the present research.